Summary

Introduce a trait Try for customizing the behavior of the ? operator when applied to types other than Result.

Motivation

Using ? with types other than Result

The ? operator is very useful for working with Result, but it really applies to any sort of short-circuiting computation. As the existence and popularity of the try_opt! macro confirms, it is common to find similar patterns when working with Option values and other types. Consider these two lines from rustfmt:

let lhs_budget = try_opt!(width.checked_sub(prefix.len() + infix.len()));
let rhs_budget = try_opt!(width.checked_sub(suffix.len()));

The overarching goal of this RFC is to allow lines like those to be written using the ? operator:

let lhs_budget = width.checked_sub(prefix.len() + infix.len())?;
let rhs_budget = width.checked_sub(suffix.len())?;

Naturally, this has all the advantages that ? offered over try! to begin with:

  • suffix notation, allowing for more fluent APIs;
  • concise, yet noticeable.

However, there are some tensions to be resolved. We don’t want to hardcode the behavior of ? to Result and Option, rather we would like to make something more extensible. For example, futures defined using the futures crate typically return one of three values:

  • a successful result;
  • a “not ready yet” value, indicating that the caller should try again later;
  • an error.

Code working with futures typically wants to proceed only if a successful result is returned. “Not ready yet” values as well as errors should be propagated to the caller. This is exemplified by the try_ready! macro used in futures. If this 3-state value were written as an enum:

enum Poll<T, E> {
    Ready(T),
    NotReady,
    Error(E),
}

Then one could replace code like try_ready!(self.stream.poll()) with self.stream.poll()?.

(Currently, the type Poll in the futures crate is defined differently, but alexcrichton indicates that in fact the original design did use an enum like Poll, and it was changed to be more compatible with the existing try! macro, and hence could be changed back to be more in line with this RFC.)

Support interconversion, but with caution

The existing try! macro and ? operator already allow a limit amount of type conversion, specifically in the error case. That is, if you apply ? to a value of type Result<T, E>, the surrounding function can have some other return type Result<U, F>, so long as the error types are related by the From trait (F: From<E>). The idea is that if an error occurs, we will wind up returning F::from(err), where err is the actual error. This is used (for example) to “upcast” various errors that can occur in a function into a common error type (e.g., Box<Error>).

In some cases, it would be useful to be able to convert even more freely. At the same time, there may be some cases where it makes sense to allow interconversion between types. For example, a library might wish to permit a Result<T, HttpError> to be converted into an HttpResponse (or vice versa). Or, in the futures example given above, we might wish to apply ? to a Poll value and use that in a function that itself returns a Poll:

fn foo() -> Poll<T, E> {
    let x = bar()?; // propagate error case
}

and we might wish to do the same, but in a function returning a Result:

fn foo() -> Result<T, E> {
    let x = bar()?; // propagate error case
}

However, we wish to be sure that this sort of interconversion is intentional. In particular, Result is often used with a semantic intent to mean an “unhandled error”, and thus if ? is used to convert an error case into a “non-error” type (e.g., Option), there is a risk that users accidentally overlook error cases. To mitigate this risk, we adopt certain conventions (see below) in that case to help ensure that “accidental” interconversion does not occur.

Detailed design

Playground

Note: if you wish to experiment, this Rust playground link contains the traits and impls defined herein.

Desugaring and the Try trait

The desugaring of the ? operator is changed to the following, where Try refers to a new trait that will be introduced shortly:

match Try::into_result(expr) {
    Ok(v) => v,

    // here, the `return` presumes that there is
    // no `catch` in scope:
    Err(e) => return Try::from_error(From::from(e)),
}

If a catch is in scope, the desugaring is roughly the same, except that instead of returning, we would break out of the catch with e as the error value.

This definition refers to a trait Try. This trait is defined in libcore in the ops module; it is also mirrored in std::ops. The trait Try is defined as follows:

trait Try {
    type Ok;
    type Error;
    
    /// Applies the "?" operator. A return of `Ok(t)` means that the
    /// execution should continue normally, and the result of `?` is the
    /// value `t`. A return of `Err(e)` means that execution should branch
    /// to the innermost enclosing `catch`, or return from the function.
    ///
    /// If an `Err(e)` result is returned, the value `e` will be "wrapped"
    /// in the return type of the enclosing scope (which must itself implement
    /// `Try`). Specifically, the value `X::from_error(From::from(e))`
    /// is returned, where `X` is the return type of the enclosing function.
    fn into_result(self) -> Result<Self::Ok, Self::Error>;

    /// Wrap an error value to construct the composite result. For example,
    /// `Result::Err(x)` and `Result::from_error(x)` are equivalent.
    fn from_error(v: Self::Error) -> Self;

    /// Wrap an OK value to construct the composite result. For example,
    /// `Result::Ok(x)` and `Result::from_ok(x)` are equivalent.
    ///
    /// *The following function has an anticipated use, but is not used
    /// in this RFC. It is included because we would not want to stabilize
    /// the trait without including it.*
    fn from_ok(v: Self::Ok) -> Self;
}

Initial impls

libcore will also define the following impls for the following types.

Result

The Result type includes an impl as follows:

impl<T,E> Try for Result<T, E> {
    type Ok = T;
    type Error = E;

    fn into_result(self) -> Self {
        self
    }
    
    fn from_ok(v: T) -> Self {
        Ok(v)
    }

    fn from_error(v: E) -> Self {
        Err(v)
    }
}

This impl permits the ? operator to be used on results in the same fashion as it is used today.

Option

The Option type includes an impl as follows:

mod option {
    pub struct Missing;

    impl<T> Try for Option<T>  {
        type Ok = T;
        type Error = Missing;

        fn into_result(self) -> Result<T, Missing> {
            self.ok_or(Missing)
        }
    
        fn from_ok(v: T) -> Self {
            Some(v)
        }

        fn from_error(_: Missing) -> Self {
            None
        }
    }
}

Note the use of the Missing type, which is specific to Option, rather than a generic type like (). This is intended to mitigate the risk of accidental Result -> Option conversion. In particular, we will only allow conversion from Result<T, Missing> to Option<T>. The idea is that if one uses the Missing type as an error, that indicates an error that can be “handled” by converting the value into an Option. (This rationale was originally explained in a comment by Aaron Turon.)

The use of a fresh type like Missing is recommended whenever one implements Try for a type that does not have the #[must_use] attribute (or, more semantically, that does not represent an “unhandled error”).

Interaction with type inference

Supporting more types with the ? operator can be somewhat limiting for type inference. In particular, if ? only works on values of type Result (as did the old try! macro), then x? forces the type of x to be Result. This can be significant in an expression like vec.iter().map(|e| ...).collect()?, since the behavior of the collect() function is determined by the type it returns. In the old try! macro days, collect() would have been forced to return a Result<_, _> – but ? leaves it more open.

This implies that callers of collect() will have to either use try!, or write an explicit type annotation, something like this:

vec.iter().map(|e| ...).collect::<Result<_, _>>()?

Another problem (which also occurs with try!) stems from the use of From to interconvert errors. This implies that ‘nested’ uses of ? are often insufficiently constrained for inference to make a decision. The problem here is that the nested use of ? effectively returns something like From::from(From::from(err)) – but only the starting point (err) and the final type are constrained. The inner type is not. It’s unclear how to address this problem without introducing some form of inference fallback, which seems orthogonal from this RFC.

How We Teach This

Where and how to document it

This RFC proposes extending an existing operator to permit the same general short-circuiting pattern to be used with more types. When initially teaching the ? operator, it would probably be best to stick to examples around Result, so as to avoid confusing the issue. However, at that time we can also mention that ? can be overloaded and offer a link to more comprehensive documentation, which would show how ? can be applied to Option and then explain the desugaring and how one goes about implementing one’s own impls.

The reference will have to be updated to include the new trait, naturally. The Rust book and Rust by example should be expanded to include coverage of the ? operator being used on a variety of types.

One important note is that we should publish guidelines explaining when it is appropriate to introduce a special error type (analogous to the option::Missing type included in this RFC) for use with ?. As expressed earlier, the rule of thumb ought to be that a special error type should be used whenever implementing Try for a type that does not, semantically, indicates an unhandled error (i.e., a type for which the #[must_use] attribute would be inappropriate).

Error messages

Another important factor is the error message when ? is used in a function whose return type is not suitable. The current error message in this scenario is quite opaque and directly references the Carrer trait. A better message would consider various possible cases.

Source type does not implement Try. If ? is applied to a value that does not implement the Try trait (for any return type), we can give a message like

? cannot be applied to a value of type Foo

Return type does not implement Try. Otherwise, if the return type of the function does not implement Try, then we can report something like this (in this case, assuming a fn that returns ()):

cannot use the ? operator in a function that returns ()

or perhaps if we want to be more strictly correct:

? cannot be applied to a Result<T, Box<Error>> in a function that returns ()

At this point, we could likely make a suggestion such as “consider changing the return type to Result<(), Box<Error>>”.

Note however that if ? is used within an impl of a trait method, or within main(), or in some other context where the user is not free to change the type signature (modulo RFC 1937), then we should not make this suggestion. In the case of an impl of a trait defined in the current crate, we could consider suggesting that the user change the definition of the trait.

Errors cannot be interconverted. Finally, if the return type R does implement Try, but a value of type R cannot be constructed from the resulting error (e.g., the function returns Option<T>, but ? is applied to a Result<T, ()>), then we can instead report something like this:

? cannot be applied to a Result<T, Box<Error>> in a function that returns Option<T>

This last part can be tricky, because the error can result for one of two reasons:

  • a missing From impl, perhaps a mistake;
  • the impl of Try is intentionally limited, as in the case of Option.

We could help the user diagnose this, most likely, by offering some labels like the following:

22 | fn foo(...) -> Option<T> {
   |                --------- requires an error of type `option::Missing`
   |     write!(foo, ...)?;
   |     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ produces an error of type `io::Error`
   | }

Consider suggesting the use of catch. Especially in contexts where the return type cannot be changed, but possibly in other contexts as well, it would make sense to advise the user about how they can catch an error instead, if they chose. Once catch is stabilized, this could be as simple as saying “consider introducing a catch, or changing the return type to …”. In the absence of catch, we would have to suggest the introduction of a match block.

Extended error message text. In the extended error message, for those cases where the return type cannot easily be changed, we might consider suggesting that the fallible portion of the code is refactored into a helper function, thus roughly following this pattern:

fn inner_main() -> Result<(), HLError> {
    let args = parse_cmdline()?;
    // all the real work here
}

fn main() {
    process::exit(match inner_main() {
        Ok(_) => 0,
        Err(ref e) => {
            writeln!(io::stderr(), "{}", e).unwrap();
            1
        }
    });
}

Implementation note: it may be helpful for improving the error message if ? were not desugared when lowering from AST to HIR but rather when lowering from HIR to MIR; however, the use of source annotations may suffice.

Drawbacks

One drawback of supporting more types is that type inference becomes harder. This is because an expression like x? no longer implies that the type of x is Result.

There is also the risk that results or other “must use” values are accidentally converted into other types. This is mitigated by the use of newtypes like option::Missing (rather than, say, a generic type like ()).

Alternatives

The “essentialist” approach

When this RFC was first proposed, the Try trait looked quite different:

trait Try<E> {
    type Success;
    fn try(self) -> Result<Self::Success, E>;
}

In this version, Try::try() converted either to an unwrapped “success” value, or to a error value to be propagated. This allowed the conversion to take into account the context (i.e., one might interconvert from a Foo to a Bar in some distinct way as one interconverts from a Foo to a Baz).

This was changed to adopt the current “reductionist” approach, in which all values are first interconverted (in a context independent way) to an OK/Error value, and then interconverted again to match the context using from_error. The reasons for the change are roughly as follows:

  • The resulting trait feels simpler and more straight-forward. It also supports from_ok in a simple fashion.
  • Context dependent behavior has the potential to be quite surprising.
  • The use of specific types like option::Missing mitigates the primary concern that motivated the original design (avoiding overly loose interconversion).
  • It is nice that the use of the From trait is now part of the ? desugaring, and hence supported universally across all types.
  • The interaction with the orphan rules is made somewhat nicer. For example, using the essentialist alternative, one might like to have a trait that permits a Result to be returned in a function that yields Poll. That would require an impl like this impl<T,E> Try<Poll<T,E>> for Result<T, E>, but this impl runs afoul of the orphan rules.

Traits implemented over higher-kinded types

The desire to avoid “free interconversion” between Result and Option seemed to suggest that the Carrier trait ought to be defined over higher-kinded types (or generic associated types) in some form. The most obvious downside of such a design is that Rust does not offer higher-kinded types nor anything equivalent to them today, and hence we would have to block on that design effort. But it also turns out that HKT is not a particularly good fit for the problem. To start, consider what “kind” the Self parameter on the Try trait would have to have. If we were to implement Try on Option, it would presumably then have kind type -> type, but we also wish to implement Try on Result, which has kind type -> type -> type. There has even been talk of implementing Try for simple types like bool, which simply have kind type. More generally, the problems encountered are quite similar to the problems that Simon Peyton-Jones describes in attempting to model collections using HKT: we wish the Try trait to be implemented in a great number of scenarios. Some of them, like converting Result<T,E> to Result<U,F>, allow for the type of the success value and the error value to both be changed, though not arbitrarily (subject to the From trait, in particular). Others, like converting Option<T> to Option<U>, allow only the type of the success value to change, whereas others (like converting bool to bool) do not allow either type to change.

What to name the trait

A number of names have been proposed for this trait. The original name was Carrier, as the implementing type was the “carrier” for an error value. A proposed alternative was QuestionMark, named after the operator ?. However, the general consensus seemed to be that since Rust operator overloading traits tend to be named after the operation that the operator performed (e.g., Add and not Plus, Deref and not Star or Asterisk), it was more appropriate to name the trait Try, which seems to be the best name for the operation in question.

Unresolved questions

None.